Topic 2: Thermal Physics

Everything is made of tiny particles that never stop moving — and how they move explains solids, liquids, and gases. Particle arrangement and motion, Brownian motion (the proof!), changes of state, why evaporation cools you down, and how thermal expansion works in solids, liquids, and gases.

How we measure heat and what happens when you add energy to things. Temperature measurement with different thermometers (liquid-in-glass and thermocouples), specific heat capacity (E = mcΔθ), melting and boiling points, and specific latent heat (E = mL) — the hidden energy in state changes.

Three ways heat travels — and how to stop it. Conduction (why metals feel cold), convection currents (why hot air rises), radiation (dark surfaces absorb more!), practical ways to reduce heat loss, and how vacuum flasks use all three ideas at once.