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Natural Resources

Rocks, minerals, energy & sustainable management

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Formation of Rocks

Igneous Rocks

Granite: Slow cooling, coarse crystals, intrusive (underground)

Basalt: Fast cooling, fine crystals, extrusive (lava flows)

Sedimentary Rocks

Limestone: Calcium carbonate, biological origin, permeable

Sandstone: Sand grains cemented, permeable, gritty

Shale: Compacted clay, impermeable, splits into layers

Metamorphic Rocks

Rocks changed by heat & pressure deep in Earth's crust

Marble: From limestone, banded appearance, used for sculpture

Slate: From shale, splits into thin sheets, used for roofing

Remember:

Igneous = cooling magma. Sedimentary = layers + cementation. Metamorphic = heat + pressure.

The Rock Cycle

Key processes:

Weathering: Surface rocks broken down by rain, frost, wind

Erosion: Broken rock transported by water/wind/ice

Transportation: Particles moved downstream/downwind

Sedimentation: Particles settle in layers

Compaction + Cementation: Layers compressed & glued → sedimentary rock

Crystallisation: Magma cools → igneous rock

Permeability

Definition: The ability of water to pass through pore spaces in rock/soil

Permeable Rocks

Limestone & sandstone have large pore spaces. Water drains through.

Impermeable Rocks

Granite, basalt, shale have small/no pores. Water runs off surface.

Exam impact: Permeable = aquifers. Impermeable = flooding risk.

Extraction Methods

Surface (Opencast)

Remove overburden, dig out ore. Cheaper, safe, but massive visual impact.

Deep Mining (Subsurface)

Shafts down to ore deposits. Expensive, dangerous, but less land damage.

Biological Extraction

Phytomining: Plants absorb metals, concentrate in leaves
Bioleaching: Bacteria separate metal from ore

Factors in Extraction Decisions

Miners consider EIGHT factors before extracting ore:

Exploration: Is there actually ore here?

Geology & Accessibility: How deep? Easy to reach?

Ore Grade: High concentration of metal = worth extracting

Climate, Supply & Demand, Cost, Impact: Is it profitable? Environmentally acceptable?

Low ore grade + high cost = NOT extracted (even if ore exists).

Impacts of Extraction

Environmental:

Habitat loss, biodiversity loss, water/air/land pollution, noise, visual scarring

Economic & Social:

Job creation BUT wealth often leaves region. Infrastructure needed. Waste management costs.

Long-term: Landscape degradation for generations.

Managing Damaged Landscapes

Land Restoration

Replace overburden, improve soil, plant trees, bioremediation (bacteria clean toxins)

Repurposing

Landfill: Fill pit with waste
Lakes: Flood pit, recreation
Nature reserves: Restore habitat

Benefit: Pit mines can become biodiversity hotspots or community assets.

Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels

NON-RENEWABLE (finite):

Coal: Dead plants compressed over millions of years. Most abundant fossil fuel.

Petroleum (Oil): Dead plankton & plants, heated under pressure. Powers transport.

Natural Gas: Methane, burns cleanly, often found with oil deposits.

All produce CO₂ when burned — linked to climate change.

Renewable Energy Resources

RENEWABLE (non-finite):

Biofuels: Bioethanol (corn), biomass (wood), biogas (manure), biodiesel

Geothermal: Heat from Earth's interior — reliable, localized

Hydro-electric: Dams harness falling water — reliable but impacts ecosystems

Tidal & Wave: Ocean movement — predictable, low impact (emerging)

Solar & Wind: Intermittent but scalable globally

Energy Demand Factors

Eight factors increase/decrease energy demand:

Transport: Cars, planes, ships need fuel

Wealth: Rich nations use more energy (heating, cooling, appliances)

Climate: Cold regions = heating. Hot regions = air conditioning

Population & Industry: More people, more manufacturing = more demand

Supply issues: Unreliable/scarce supplies drive up demand for alternatives

Hydrogen Fuel

New energy source — burns to water, zero emissions:

Blue Hydrogen: Made from natural gas — still produces some CO₂

Green Hydrogen: Made using renewables (solar, wind) — truly zero carbon

Other emerging:

Heat Pumps (air/ground): Transfer heat from air/ground for heating buildings

These are the FUTURE of low-carbon energy.

Strategies for Energy Management

Reduce consumption: Insulation, LED, public transport

Exploit existing resources: Use all coal/oil before switching

Develop new resources: Hydrogen, heat pumps, solar, wind

Education: Teach people to conserve

Policy: Transport policies (public transit), battery storage, renewable targets

Most countries now aim for 50–100% renewable energy by 2050.

Fracking (Hydraulic Fracturing)

Definition: Pump high-pressure water/chemicals into shale rock to break it open & release natural gas/oil

Benefits: Accesses previously trapped resources, reduces oil import dependence, jobs

Limitations: Water pollution, methane leaks, earthquakes, land disruption, still fossil fuels

Current stance: Banned in UK & EU, accepted in US/Canada due to energy security.

Sustainable Resource Management

Key strategies:
• Reduce consumption & reuse
• Recycle (but requires education & infrastructure)
• Improve extraction efficiency
• Avoid resource depletion (sustainable harvesting)
• Legislation & enforcement
• Use alternative materials (composites, recycled metals)

Goal: Meet present needs WITHOUT compromising future generations.

Circular economy > Linear (take-make-waste)